Review of Microleon Butler, 1885 (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) from Taiwan with description of a new species based on morphology and DNA barcoding.

The Taiwanese species of Microleon are reviewed with morphological and DNA data. Our review recognized two congeners, including a new species, M. taiwanensis n. sp. and one known species, M. longipalpis Butler, 1885. The findings from this study request a reconsideration of the previous records of Microleon from Taiwan. The minor differences in external appearance among the species of Microleon pose a challenge for reliable identification. Our study shows that examination of the male genitalia and COI barcoding helps distinguish the species. A checklist of the world species of Microleon with their distributional range is provided.

Re-evaluation of the taxonomic confusion of the metallic-blue Pimpla Fabricius, 1804 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae) species in the Oriental region.

The metallic-blue body coloration is a distinct characteristic found in seven species of the cosmopolitan genus Pimpla Fabricius, 1804. In this study, we focus on two externally similar species, namely P. cyanator Morley, 1914 in India and P. alishanensis (Kusigemati, 1984) in Taiwan, along with the Indian P. indra Cameron, 1899, which are the only three species in the Oriental region exhibiting this trait. By examining the type series of these two taxa and acquiring additional materials from Taiwan, we discovered female morphological variations that resemble the form of the holotype of P. cyanator. Consequently, we propose that P. alishanensis should be synonymized with P. cyanator (syn. nov.). Furthermore, we provide a redescription of P. cyanator based on morphological characters and molecular COI sequences. We also discuss its revised distribution, the diagnostic features distinguishing P. cyanator from other metallic-blue Pimpla species worldwide, the factors influencing the color change in specimens, and some potential misidentifications that have occurred in the past.

Differentiation patterns of emperor moths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae: Saturniinae) of a continental island: divergent evolutionary history driven by Pleistocene glaciations.

Background: On the basis of molecular dating, Pleistocene glaciations have been proposed as the major driving force of biota speciation in the Palearctic and the pre-Quaternary origin of Amazonian taxa. However, the major driving factors in East Asia remain unclear. All 16 saturniine species inhabiting Taiwan with congeners of populations, subspecies, or species in East Asia constitute research objects for addressing the mode of speciation because of the repeated formation and disappearance of a landbridge from the Asian mainland to Taiwan during glacial cycles. Methods: The genetic divergences of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and 16S rDNA and the nuclear 28S rDNA of the saturniine species from Taiwan and the Asian mainland were assessed to determine the monophyly of each genus and species of Saturniinae. Moreover, 519 saturniine COI sequences of 114 taxa from adjacent East and Southeast Asian populations and closely related species were retrieved from GenBank and analyzed. The differentiation timing and possible origination of the insular saturniines were elucidated based on phylogenetic relationships, haplotype networks, and lineage calibrations. Results: Approximately 90% of intraspecific COI divergence was <2%; all divergences exceeding 2% originated from comparisons between allopatric populations or subspecies. Relationship analyses revealed that multiple introductions likely occurred in insular saturniines and that some East Asian saturniines were paraphyletic as deduced by analyzing endemic insular species. Calibration dating revealed that Taiwanese endemic saturniines split from sibling Asian species 0.2-2.7 million years ago (Mya), whereas subspecific-level and population-level splitting events occurred 0.1-1.7 Mya and 0.2-1.2 Mya, respectively. Moreover, phylogenetic patterns combined with geographical distributions revealed that hill-distributed Taiwanese saturniines are closely related to those from southern China and Southeast Asia, whereas saturniines inhabiting altitudes higher than 1,500 m in Taiwan have siblings distributed in temperate Northeast Asia. Discussion: The Global DNA Barcoding Initiative was successfully applied to study the population genetic structure in species. Most Formosan saturniines are distinct and monophyletic, reflecting the vicariant barrier of the Taiwan Strait; Pleistocene glacial cycles provided opportunities for insular saturniines to experience repeated isolation from and secondary contact with the continental mainland. Each insular saturniine may have evolved with a unique differentiation timing pattern that possibly emerged in the Early, Middle, or Late Pleistocene with these patterns differing from the consistent pattern that occurred in the temperate Palearctic and tropical Amazonian regions. Moreover, multiple migrations or artificial genetic admixtures may have also occurred, as suggested by the coexistence of two divergent lineages in a few Taiwanese saturniines.

A review of the subgenus Delineatia Volynkin amp; Huang, 2019 of the genus Ammatho Walker, 1855, with descriptions of two new species from Taiwan and Vietnam (Lepidoptera, Erebidae, Arctiinae, Lithosiini).

The subgenus Delineatia Volynkin Huang, 2019 of the genus Ammatho Walker, 1855 is reviewed. The subgenus is subdivided into the A. delineata and the A. sublucana species-groups. Two new species are described: Ammatho (Delineatia) tairadiata Wu Volynkin, sp. n. from Taiwan and Ammatho (Delineatia) trangchim Volynkin Wu, sp. n. from Central Vietnam. The synonymy of Hypocrita rhodina Herrich-Schäffer, 1855 with Ammatho (Delineatia) delineata (Walker, 1854) is revised. It is stated that the type locality of H. rhodina, Borneo is wrong and probably based on the incorrectly labeled type specimen. Adults and male and female genitalia of all species are illustrated.

Review of Cidariplura Butler, 1879 (Lepidoptera, Erebidae, Herminiinae). br />Part 1: the Cidariplura gladiata species complex.

The generic type species Cidariplura gladiata Butler, 1879 and its allies of the genus Cidariplura Butler, 1879 are reviewed. In total, there are seven recognized species ranging from Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Vietnam; and we provide descriptions of three new species: C. nanling sp. nov., C. luding sp. nov., C. hbun sp. nov. The species C. shanmeii Wu Owada, 2013 is re-described since the type series was the existence of specimens belonging to both C. shanmeii and C. hbun. Key to all belonging species is given.

Study on moths of the Herminia decipiens complex (Lepidoptera, Erebidae, Herminiinae) with descriptions of three new species.

Asian herminiine moths of the Herminia decipiens complex are revised and five allopatric species are recognized, i.e. Herminia decipiens (Hampson, 1898) in Nilgiri Hills, Khasi Hills, South China, Indochina, Malay Peninsula, H. terminalis (Wileman, 1915) in Taiwan, H. yuksam sp. nov. in East Nepal, Sikkim, H. borneo sp. nov. in Borneo and H. amamioshima sp. nov. in Amami-oshima Is., Shimo-Koshikijima Is. and South Kyushu (Kagoshima). Key to all species is given.

Artificial intelligence reveals environmental constraints on colour diversity in insects.

Explaining colour variation among animals at broad geographic scales remains challenging. Here we demonstrate how deep learning-a form of artificial intelligence-can reveal subtle but robust patterns of colour feature variation along an ecological gradient, as well as help identify the underlying mechanisms generating this biogeographic pattern. Using over 20,000 images with precise GPS locality information belonging to nearly 2,000 moth species from Taiwan, our deep learning model generates a 2048-dimension feature vector that accurately predicts each species' mean elevation based on colour and shape features. Using this multidimensional feature vector, we find that within-assemblage image feature variation is smaller in high elevation assemblages. Structural equation modeling suggests that this reduced image feature diversity is likely the result of colder environments selecting for darker colouration, which limits the colour diversity of assemblages at high elevations. Ultimately, with the help of deep learning, we will be able to explore the endless forms of natural morphological variation at unpreceded depths.

Evaluating the generic definition of Lithopolia Yoshimoto, 1993 with a description of one new species of Taiwan (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae, Noctuinae, Orthosiini).

The present study evaluates the relationships among the Orthosiini genus Lithopolia Yoshimoto, 1993 and its related genera in Egira Duponchel, 1845 group. We propose the absence of signum on corpus bursae can be regarded as the synapomorphic character of Lithopolia. Based on this character, we transfer Egira phahompoki Hreblay Ronkay, 1999 of N. Thailand (type locality) and W. China (new record) to Lithopolia (comb. nov.) and describe a closely related new species, L. tadaokanoi sp. nov., from Taiwan. The inner relationship of Lithopolia is also discussed.

Revising the generic characters of Lobogonodes Bastelberger, 1909, with description of a new species from Taiwan (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Larentiinae).

The present study re-assesses the characters of the Oriental genus Lobogonodes Bastelberger, 1909 based on all 8 species, including the newly described L. shiushioui sp. nov. and the distinct species L. dactylotypa Prout, 1940 stat. rev.. Three synapomorphic characters based on the male genitalia are proposed: the presence of a sclerotized subscaphium, the U-shaped connection between the juxta and anellus lobe and the saccus process pointed anteriorly. A new key to the species in this genus is provided.

Discovery of the genus Pseudepione Inoue, 1943 in Taiwan, with description of a new species (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae).

The genus Pseudepione Inoue, 1943 is a small geometrid taxon comprising only two species, the typo species P. magnaria (Wileman, 1911) and P. shiraii Inoue, 1943. They are known to distribute in Japan (Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku), south and central Korea (Choi 2012; Choi An 2010; Jung Oh 2012), the former species was also reported in Jiangxi of China (Fang 2003). The genus seems to be univoltine since adults can only be found in the autumn season (Wileman 1911; Inoue 1943, 1982; Parsons et al. 1999; Kim Beljaev 2001; Sato 2011; Choi 2012). The combination of the absence of forewing fovea, tuft of scales of third abdominal sternite, gnathos, socii and cormata is quite unique in Ennominae. So far, the phylogenetic affinity of Pseudepione is unclear since the closely related genus has never been proposed and still no morphological or molecular phylogenetic studies, i.e. Beljaev (2006a; 2006b; 2016), Sihvonen (2011), Yamamoto Sota (2007), Jiang et al. (2017), considering the palaearctic subfamily or tribal levels sampled this genus. The dense fundamental surveys conducted in recent 7 years in the cloud forests of Taiwan acquire the opportunity to collect this genus new to Taiwan. After comparing the Taiwanese specimens with the known two species in both sexes, it's clear the Taiwanese specimens are a distinct species needed to be described in the present study.

Revision of the Hoplodrina implacata group (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Noctuinae: Caradrinini) of Taiwan, with descriptions of four new species.

The noctuid taxon Hoplodrina implacata species complex comprises so far five species ranging in China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Previously only H. implacata (Wileman West, 1929) was recorded in Taiwan. The present study reviews this group in Taiwan, totally four new species, i.e., H. cienensis sp. nov., H. obscura sp. nov., H. bunun sp. nov., H. kononenkoi sp. nov, are described and a key to all Taiwanese species is given.

Review of the Alompra ferruginea Moore, 1872 complex with description of a new species from Taiwan (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae).

The present study reviews the Alompra ferruginea Moore, 1872 group. A. ferruginea bidiensis Tams, 1953 (TL: Borneo) and A. ferruginea cerastes Tams, 1953 (TL: Mindanao) are both raised to bona species level. The population of Taiwan is described as a new species, A. yibinfani sp. nov. The lectotype of A. ferruginea is designated from BMNH, the holotype of A. ferruginea cerastes is designated from USNM. A. ferruginea is listed here from Vietnam for the first time.

A new Subleuconycta (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Acronictinae) species from Taiwan.

The genus Subleuconycta Kozhantshikov, 1950 belongs to the noctuid subfamily Acronictinae (Kozhantshikov 1950, Kononenko 2005, 2010) and has long been known to contain only two described species (Poole 1989, Kononenko 2010). Subleuconycta palshkovi (Filipjev, 1937) occurs in the Eastern Manchurian subregion of the Palaearctic Realm, while Subleuconycta sugii Boursin, 1962 is endemic to Taiwan.

Andraca yauichui sp. n., a new species endemic to mid elevation forests of Taiwan (Bombycidae sensu lato, Lepidoptera).

A new endemic, montane species of the genus Andraca, A. yauichui sp. nov., in Taiwan is described. It can be separated well from a lower montane, notable tea tree pest A. theae (Matsumura, 1909), based on morphological characters of adult, e.g. larger wingspan size, head vertex white rather than brown, valval apex truncate rather than bifurcate, and final instar larva, e.g. the presence of a pair of white spot on lateral part of each abdominal segment and a distinct short anal horn rather than the absence of two characters. The subgeneric placement of this new species in Andraca is also discussed.

Descriptions of two new notodontid species from the relic Fagus forests in northeastern Taiwan (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae).

Two new Fagus-feeding notodontids, i.e. Syntypistis taipingshanensis Wu & Hsu sp. n. and Pheosiopsis seni Wu & Hsu sp. n. are recently discovered from the relic Fagus forests in northeastern Taiwan. Based on the genitalia structures, the closely relatives of two new species are S. melana Wu & Fang, 2003 and P. albalienata Kishida & Kobayashi, 2005, respectively, both occurring in the Fagus forests of Southern China.

The fauna of the family Bombycidae sensu lato (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Bombycoidea) from Mainland China, Taiwan and Hainan Islands.

Seventy-seven species of family Bombycidae s. lat., belonging to 25 genera in three subfamilies, that have been recorded from China are listed and described, with illustrations of the adults, preimaginal stages (if available), and their genitalia. Keys to subfamilies and genera are provided. Two new genera and four new species are described, two subgenera are raised to generic status, seven new combinations are made, and one genus and six species are newly recorded from China. The new taxa are as follows: Rotunda Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, gen. nov., Comparmustilia Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, gen. nov., Triuncina daii Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, sp. nov., Triuncina xiongi Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, sp. nov., Gnathocinara boi Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, sp. nov. and Promustilia yajiangensis Wang, X. & Zolotuhin, sp. nov. The taxa newly recorded for China are: Sesquiluna Forbes, 1955; Trilocha friedeli Dierl, 1978; Bivincula kalikotei Dierl, 1978; Sesquiluna forbesi Zolotuhin & Witt, 2009; Mustilizans lepusa Zolotuhin, 2007; Smerkata brechlini (Zolotuhin, 2007) and Mustilia castanea Moore, 1879. The seven new combinations are: Rotunda rotundapex (Miyata & Kishida, 1990), comb. nov., Triuncina nitida (Chu & Wang, L.Y., 1993), comb. nov., Gunda sesostris (Vuillot, 1893), comb. nov., Smerkata fusca (Kishida, 1993), comb. nov., Comparmustilia sphingiformis (Moore, 1879), comb. nov., Comparmustilia semiravida (Yang, 1995), comb. nov., Comparmustilia gerontica (West, 1932), comb. nov.. The two subgenera raised to generic level are: Promustilia Zolotuhin, 2007, stat. nov. and Smerkata Zolotuhin, 2007, stat. nov.. The distributions of the species in China were determined and distributional maps provided. All type specimens of the new species described here are deposited in the College of Plant Protection, Hunan Agricultural University, China (HUNAU); Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, China (SCAU); Kyushu University Museum, Kyushu University, Japan (KUM), and Entomological Museum Thomas J. Witt, Munich, Germany (MWM).

Elucidating taxonomic problems of the genus Disparia Nagano, 1916 of Taiwan and its neighboring areas, with description of one new species (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae).

The taxonomic problems of the genus Disparia Nagano, 1916 in Taiwan and its neighboring areas are elucidated in the present study. The hitherto well-known separated taxonomic units, Fentonia nigrofasciata Wileman, 1910 and Pseudofentonia medioalbida Nakamura, 1973, are confirmed as the conspecific species based on the type material examination. The latter is here treated as a junior synonym (syn. nov.). The taxon previously identified as "D. nigrofasciata" in most of studies is actually D. wilemani Matsumura, 1925 stat. rev. Fentonia variegata Wileman, 1910 is retained for the eastern Asian population as a subspecies of widespread D. diluta (Wileman, 1910) through comparison with other populations. In addition, one new species, D. kobayashii sp. nov., endemic to Taiwan is described. Including D. maculata (Moore, 1879), totally five Disparia species are distributed in Taiwan.

Review of the Parasa undulata (Cai, 1983) species group with the first conifer-feeding larva for Limacodidae and descriptions of two new species from China and Taiwan (Lepidoptera, Limacodidae).

Although the caterpillars are well-known for the stings and magnificent coloration, the systematics of Limacodidae is historically neglected and chaotic due to the difficulty in matching the larval with adult stages as well as the very conservative and convergent adult morphology. One of the biggest taxonomic problems surrounds a collective group from Southeastern Asia, termed the "green limacodid moths", which harbours at least 90 species placed in the genus Parasa Walker, 1859 and 14 "subunits". The P. undulata group was previously composed of 3 species from China and Taiwan, and characterized only by wing pattern. This species group is extensively studied herein with two new species described, i.e. P. viridiflamma sp. n. (Taiwan) and P. minwangi sp. n. (S. China), and discovery of female genitalia of three species, presenting new phylogenetic insights in this potentially paraphyletic genus. In addition, one limacodid larva was found to be feeding exclusively on Picea (Pinaceae) in Taiwan. Its identity, Parasa pygmy Solovyev, 2010 in P. undulata group, is confirmed through matching its COI sequence to the adult. This discovery is also biologically significant because the previous known host breadth of Parasa was of polyphagy on various angiosperm plant families. This case, therefore, represents the first record of conifer-feeding behavior in this family as well as the first of specialized herbivory in the genus. Meanwhile, the background match between Picea leaves and larval coloration is shared with other Picea-feeding insects. This phenomenon is worth of further investigation in the aspect of convergent evolution of crypsis associated with a particular plant.